Fuel Quantity Indicating Systems
All aircraft fuel systems must have some form of fuel quantity indicator. These devices vary widely depending on the complexity of the fuel system and the aircraft on which they are installed. Simple indicators requiring no electrical power were the earliest type of quantity indicators and are still in use today. The use of these direct reading indicators is possible only on light aircraft in which the fuel tanks are in close proximity to the cockpit. Other light aircraft and larger aircraft require electric indicators or electronic capacitance type indicators.A sight glass is a clear glass or plastic tube open to the fuel tank that fills with fuel to the same level as the fuel in the tank. It can be calibrated in gallons or fractions of a full tank that can be read by the pilot. Another type of sight gauge makes use of a float with an indicating rod attached to it. As the float moves up and down with the fuel level in the tank, the portion of the rod that extends through the fuel cap indicates the quantity of fuel in the tank. [Figure 1] These two mechanisms are combined in yet another simple fuel quantity indicator in which the float is attached to a rod that moves up or down in a calibrated cylinder. [Figure 2]
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| Figure 1. The fuel quantity indicator on this Piper Cub is a float attached to a rod that protrudes through the fuel cap |
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| Figure 2. A float-type sight gauge fuel quantity indicator |
More sophisticated mechanical fuel quantity gauges are common. A float that follows the fuel level remains the primary sensing element, but a mechanical linkage is connected to move a pointer across the dial face of an instrument.
This can be done with a crank and pinion arrangement that drives the pointer with gears, or with a magnetic coupling, to the pointer. [Figure 3]
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| Figure 3. Simple mechanical fuel indicators used on light aircraft with fuel tanks in close proximity to the pilot |
Electric fuel quantity indicators are more common than mechanical indicators in modern aircraft. Most of these units operate with direct current (DC) and use variable resistance in a circuit to drive a ratiometer-type indicator. The movement of a float in the tank moves a connecting arm to the wiper on a variable resistor in the tank unit. This resistor is wired in series with one of the coils of the ratiometer-type fuel gauge in the instrument panel. Changes to the current flowing through the tank unit resistor change the current flowing through one of the coils in the indicator. This alters the magnetic field in which the indicating pointer pivots. The calibrated dial indicates the corresponding fuel quantity. [Figure 4]
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| Figure 4. A DC electric fuel quantity indicator uses a variable resistor in the tank unit, which is moved by a float arm |
Digital indicators are available that work with the same variable resistance signal from the tank unit. They convert the variable resistance into a digital display in the cockpit instrument head. [Figure 5] Fully digital instrumentation systems, such as those found in a glass cockpit aircraft, convert the variable resistance into a digital signal to be processed in a computer and displayed on a flat screen panel.
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| Figure 5. Digital fuel quantity gauges that work off of variable resistance from the tank unit are shown in A and B. The fuel quantity indication of a Garmin G-1000 flat screen display is shown in C |
Large and high-performance aircraft typically utilize electronic fuel quantity systems. These more costly systems have the advantage of having no moving parts in the tank sending units. Variable capacitance transmitters are installed in the fuel tanks extending from the top to the bottom of each tank in the usable fuel. Several of these tank units, or fuel probes as they are sometimes called, may be installed in a large tank. [Figure 6] They are wired in parallel. As the level of the fuel changes, the capacitance of each unit changes. The capacitance transmitted by all of the probes in a tank is totaled and compared in a bridge circuit by a microchip computer in the tank’s digital fuel quantity indicator in the cockpit. As the aircraft maneuvers, some probes are in more fuel than others due to the attitude of the aircraft. The indication remains steady, because the total capacitance transmitted by all of the probes remains the same. A trimmer is used to match the capacitance output with the precalibrated quantity indicator.
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| Figure 6. A fuel tank transmitter for a capacitance-type fuel quantity indicating system |
A capacitor is a device that stores electricity. The amount it can store depends on three factors: the area of its plates, the distance between the plates, and the dielectric constant of the material separating the plates. A fuel tank unit contains two concentric plates that are a fixed distance apart. Therefore, the capacitance of a unit can change if the dielectric constant of the material separating the plates varies. The units are open at the top and bottom so they can assume the same level of fuel as is in the tanks. Therefore, the material between the plates is either fuel (if the tank is full), air (if the tank is empty), or some ratio of fuel and air depending on how much fuel remains in the tank. Figure 7 shows a simplified illustration of this construction.
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| Figure 7. The capacitance of tank probes varies in a capacitance-type fuel tank indicator system as the space between the inner and outer plates is filled with varying quantities of fuel and air depending on the amount of fuel in the tank |
The bridge circuit that measures the capacitance of the tank units uses a reference capacitor for comparison. When voltage is induced into the bridge, the capacitive reactance of the tank probes and the reference capacitor can be equal or different. The magnitude of the difference is translated into an indication of the fuel quantity in the tank calibrated in pounds. Figure 8 represents the nature of this comparison bridge circuit.
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| Figure 8. A simplified capacitance bridge for a fuel quantity system |
The use of tank unit capacitors, a reference capacitor, and a microchip bridge circuit in the fuel quantity indicators is complicated by the fact that temperature affects the dielectric constant of the fuel. A compensator unit (mounted low in the tank so it is always covered with fuel) is wired into the bridge circuit. It modifies current flow to reflect temperature variations of the fuel, which affect fuel density and thus capacitance of the tank units. [Figure 9] An amplifier is also needed in older systems. The amplitude of the electric signals must be increased to move the servo motor in the analog indicator. Additionally, the dielectric constant of different turbine-engine fuels approved for a particular aircraft may also vary. Calibration is required to overcome this.
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| Figure 9. A fuel quantity tank unit and compensator unit installed inside a wing tank |
A fuel summation unit is part of the capacitance-type fuel quantity indication system. It is used to add the tank quantities from all indicators. This total aircraft fuel quantity can be used by the crew and by flight management computers for calculating optimum airspeed and engine performance limits for climb, cruise, descent, etc. Capacitance-type fuel quantity system test units are available for troubleshooting and ensuring proper functioning and calibration of the indicating system components.
Many aircraft with capacitance-type fuel indicating systems also use a mechanical indication system to cross-check fuel quantity indications and to ascertain the amount of fuel onboard the aircraft when electrical power is not available. A handful of fuel measuring sticks, or drip sticks, are mounted throughout each tank. When pushed and rotated, the drip stick can be lowered until fuel begins to exit the hole on the bottom of each stick. This is the point at which the top of the stick is equal to the height of the fuel. The sticks have a calibrated scale on them. By adding the indications of all of the drip sticks and converting to pounds or gallons via a chart supplied by the manufacturer, the quantity of the fuel in the tank can be ascertained. [Figure 10]
Measuring fuel flow accurately is complicated by the fact that the fuel mass changes with temperature or with the type of fuel used in turbine engines. In light aircraft with reciprocating engines, systems have been devised to measure fuel volume. The actual mass of fuel flowing to the engine is based on an assumption of the average weight of the fuel per unit volume.
The simplest fuel flow sensing device is used in conjunction with fuel injection systems installed on horizontally opposed reciprocating engines. A pressure gauge is used but it is calibrated in gallons per hour or pounds per hour. The amount of fuel that is flowing through the fuel injectors has a direct relationship to the pressure drop across the fuel injector orifices. Therefore, monitoring fuel pressure at the injector(s) closely approximates fuel flow and provides useful flow information for mixture control and flight planning.
There is a major limitation to the use of fuel pressure as a flow indicator. Should an injector become clogged, fuel flow is reduced. However, the pressure gauge indicates a higher fuel pressure (and greater fuel flow) due to the restriction. Operators must be aware of this potential condition and check the flowmeter against EGT to determine the nature of the elevated indication. [Figure 11]
Large reciprocating engine fuel systems may use a vane-type fuel flow meter that measures the volume of the fuel consumed by the engine. The fuel flow unit is typically located between the engine-driven fuel pump and the carburetor. The entire volume of fuel delivered to the engine is made to pass through the flowmeter. Inside, the fuel pushes against the vane, which counters the force of the fuel flow with a calibrated spring. The vane shaft rotates varying degrees matching the fuel flow rate through the unit. An autosyn transmitter deflects the pointer on the cockpit fuel flow gauge the same amount as the vane deflects. The dial face of the indicator is calibrated in gallons per hour or pounds per hour based on an average weight of fuel.
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| Figure 10. A fuel drip stick is lowered from the fuel tank bottom until fuel drips out the hole at the bottom. By reading the calibrated scale and adding readings from all tank drip sticks, a chart can be consulted to arrive at the total fuel quantity on the aircraft by weight or by volume |
Fuel Flowmeters
A fuel flowmeter indicates an engine’s fuel use in real time. This can be useful to the pilot for ascertaining engine performance and for flight planning calculations. The types of fuel flow meter used on an aircraft depends primarily on the powerplant being used and the associated fuel system.Measuring fuel flow accurately is complicated by the fact that the fuel mass changes with temperature or with the type of fuel used in turbine engines. In light aircraft with reciprocating engines, systems have been devised to measure fuel volume. The actual mass of fuel flowing to the engine is based on an assumption of the average weight of the fuel per unit volume.
The simplest fuel flow sensing device is used in conjunction with fuel injection systems installed on horizontally opposed reciprocating engines. A pressure gauge is used but it is calibrated in gallons per hour or pounds per hour. The amount of fuel that is flowing through the fuel injectors has a direct relationship to the pressure drop across the fuel injector orifices. Therefore, monitoring fuel pressure at the injector(s) closely approximates fuel flow and provides useful flow information for mixture control and flight planning.
There is a major limitation to the use of fuel pressure as a flow indicator. Should an injector become clogged, fuel flow is reduced. However, the pressure gauge indicates a higher fuel pressure (and greater fuel flow) due to the restriction. Operators must be aware of this potential condition and check the flowmeter against EGT to determine the nature of the elevated indication. [Figure 11]
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| Figure 11. The pressure drop across the fuel injector nozzles is used to represent fuel flow in light reciprocating-engine aircraft |
Large reciprocating engine fuel systems may use a vane-type fuel flow meter that measures the volume of the fuel consumed by the engine. The fuel flow unit is typically located between the engine-driven fuel pump and the carburetor. The entire volume of fuel delivered to the engine is made to pass through the flowmeter. Inside, the fuel pushes against the vane, which counters the force of the fuel flow with a calibrated spring. The vane shaft rotates varying degrees matching the fuel flow rate through the unit. An autosyn transmitter deflects the pointer on the cockpit fuel flow gauge the same amount as the vane deflects. The dial face of the indicator is calibrated in gallons per hour or pounds per hour based on an average weight of fuel.
Since fuel fed to the engine must pass through the flowmeter unit, a relief valve is incorporated to bypass the fuel around the vane should it malfunction and restrict normal fuel flow. The vane chamber is eccentric. As more fuel pushes against the vane, it rotates further around in the chamber. The volume of the chamber gradually increases to permit the greater flow of fuel without restriction or pressure buildup. [Figure 12]
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| Figure 12. A vane-type fuel flow meter. Greater flow volume increases deflection of the vane against a calibrated spring. An autosyn transmitter replicates the vane shaft rotation on the cockpit indicator that is calibrated in gallons or pounds of fuel flow per hour |
Turbine-engine aircraft experience the greatest range of fuel density from temperature variation and fuel composition. An elaborate fuel flow device is used on these aircraft. It measures fuel mass for accurate fuel flow indication in the cockpit. The mass flow indicator takes advantage of the direct relationship between fuel mass and viscosity. Fuel is swirled by a cylindrical impeller that rotates at a fixed speed. The outflow deflects a turbine just downstream of the impeller. The turbine is held with calibrated springs. Since the impeller motor swirls the fuel at a fixed rate, any variation of the turbine deflection is caused by the volume and viscosity of the fuel. The viscosity component represents the mass of the fuel. [Figure 13]
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| Figure 13. A mass flow fuel flow indicating system used on turbine-engine aircraft uses the direct relationship between viscosity and mass to display fuel flow in pounds per hour |
An alternating current (AC) synchro system is part of the mass fuel flowmeter. It is used to position a pointer against the cockpit indicator scale calibrated in pounds per hour.
With accurate fuel flow knowledge, numerous calculations can be performed to aid the pilot’s situational awareness and flight planning. Most high-performance aircraft have a fuel totalizer that electronically calculates and displays information, such as total fuel used, total fuel remaining onboard the aircraft, total range and flight time remaining at the present airspeed, rate of fuel consumption, etc. On light aircraft, it is common to replace the original analog fuel indicators with electronic gauges containing similar capabilities and built-in logic. Some of these fuel computers, as they are called, integrate global positioning satellite (GPS) location information. [Figure 14] Aircraft with fully digital cockpits process fuel flow data in computers and display a wide array of fuel flow related information on demand.
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| Figure 14. A modern fuel management gauge uses a microprocessor to display fuel flow and numerous other fuel consumption related calculations |
Relatively new types of fuel flow sensors/transmitters are available in new aircraft and for retrofit to older aircraft. One type of device found in home-built and experimental aircraft uses a turbine that rotates in the fuel flow. The higher the flow rate is, the faster the turbine rotates. A Hall effect transducer is used to convert the speed of the turbine to an electrical signal to be used by an advanced fuel gauge similar to a fuel computer to produce a variety of calculated readouts and warnings. The turbine in this unit is in line with the fuel flow, but is fail safe to allow adequate fuel flow without interruption should the unit malfunction. [Figure 15]
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| Figure 15. A transducer and microprocessor for control functions are located in the base of this turbine fuel flow sensor. The gauge is menu driven with numerous display options |
Another fuel flow sensor used primarily on light aircraft also detects the spinning velocity of a turbine in the fuel path. It too has a failsafe design should the turbine malfunction. In this unit, notches in the rotor interrupt an infrared light beam between an LED and phototransistor that creates a signal proportional to the amount fuel flow. [Figure 16] This type of sensor may be coupled with an electronic indicator.
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| Figure 16. A turbine flow transducer in this fuel flow sensor produces a current pulse signal from an opto-electronic pickup with a preamplifier |
Increasing use of microprocessors and computers on aircraft enable the integration of fuel temperature and other compensating factors to produce highly accurate fuel flow information. Fuel flow sensing with digital output facilitates this with a high degree of reliability. Thermal dispersion technology provides flow sensing with no moving parts and digital output signals. The sensor consists of two resistance temperature detectors (RTDs). One is a reference RTD that measures the temperature of the fuel. The other is the active RTD. It is heated by an adjacent element to a temperature higher than the fuel. As the fuel flows, the active element cools proportionally to the fuel flow. The temperature difference between the two RTDs is highest at no flow.
The RTDs are connected to an electronic assembly that supplies power to the heater and uses sensing circuitry and a microprocessor to control a constant temperature difference between the heated and unheated RTDs. The electrical current to the heater is proportional to the mass flow of the fuel. As mentioned, the reference RTD is used as a temperature sensor to provide a temperature output and allow for temperature compensation of the flow measurement. [Figure 17]
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| Figure 17. Fuel flow sensing units using thermal dispersion technology have no moving parts and output digital signals |
Fuel Temperature Gauges
As previously mentioned, monitoring fuel temperature can inform the pilot when fuel temperature approaches that which could cause ice to form in the fuel system, especially at the fuel filter. Many large and high-performance turbine aircraft use a resistance type electric fuel temperature sender in a main fuel tank for this purpose. It can display on a traditional ratiometer gauge or can be input into a computer for processing and digital display. A low fuel temperature can be corrected with the use of a fuel heater if the aircraft is so equipped. Also as mentioned, fuel temperature can be integrated into fuel flow processing calculations. Viscosity differences at varying fuel temperatures that affect fuel flow sensing accuracy can be corrected via microprocessors and computers.Fuel Pressure Gauges
Monitoring fuel pressure can give the pilot early warning of a fuel system related malfunction. Verification that the fuel system is delivering fuel to the fuel metering device can be critical. Simple light reciprocating-engine aircraft typically utilize a direct reading Bourdon tube pressure gauge. It is connected into the fuel inlet of the fuel metering device with a line extending to the back of the gauge in the cockpit instrument panel. A more complex aircraft may have a sensor with a transducer located at the fuel inlet to the metering device that sends electrical signals to a cockpit gauge. [Figure 18] In aircraft equipped with an auxiliary pump for starting and to backup the engine-driven pump, the fuel pressure gauge indicates the auxilliary pump pressure until the engine is started. When the auxiliary pump is switched off, the gauge indicates the pressure developed by the engine driven pump.
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| Figure 18. A typical fuel gauge that uses a signal from a sensing transducer to display fuel inlet pressure at the metering device |
More complex and larger reciprocating engine aircraft may use a differential fuel pressure gauge. It compares fuel inlet pressure to the air inlet pressure at the fuel metering device. A bellows type pressure gauge is normally used. [Figure 19]
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| Figure 19. A differential fuel pressure gauge used on complex and high-performance reciprocating-engine aircraft compares the fuel inlet pressure to the air inlet pressure at the fuel metering device |
Modern aircraft may use a variety of sensors including solid state types and those with digital output signals or signals that are converted to digital output. These can be processed in the instrument gauge microprocessor, if so equipped, or in a computer and sent to the display unit. [Figure 20]
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| Figure 20. An electronic display of fuel parameters, including fuel pressure |
Pressure Warning Signal
On aircraft of any size, visual and audible warning devices are used in conjunction with gauge indications to draw the pilot’s attention to certain conditions. Fuel pressure is an important parameter that merits the use of a warning signal when it falls outside of the normal operating range. Low fuel pressure warning lights can be illuminated through the use of simple pressure sensing switches. [Figure 21] The contacts of the switch will close when fuel pressure against the diaphragm is insufficient to hold them open. This allows current to flow to the annunciator or warning light in the cockpit. |
| Figure 21. A fuel pressure warning signal is controlled by a switch that closes when fuel pressure is low |
Most turbine-powered aircraft utilize a low pressure warning switch at the outlet of each fuel boost pump. The annunciator for each is typically positioned adjacent to the boost pump ON/OFF switch on the fuel panel in the cockpit. [Figure 22]
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| Figure 22. A transport category aircraft fuel panel with low pressure warning lights for each fuel boost pump |
Valve-In-Transit Indicator Lights
Aircraft with multiple fuel tanks use valves and pumps to move fuel and to have it flow to desired locations, such as the engines, a certain tank, or overboard during fuel jettison. The functioning of the valves in the fuel system is critical. Some aircraft indicate to the crew when the valve is opening or closing with the use of valve-in-transit lights. Contacts in the valve control the lights that go out when the valve is fully open or when it is fully closed. Alternately, annunciator lights that show the valve position as OPEN or CLOSED are also used. Valve-in-transit and valve position indicators, or lights, are located on the fuel panel in the cockpit adjacent to the valve ON/OFF switches. [Figure 23] Sometimes the switch mechanism has the annunciator light built into it. Digital display systems graphically depict valve positions on screen. |
| Figure 23. Valve-in-transit lights are used on this section of a transport category aircraft fuel panel. Low boost pump pressure lights that look the same are also on the panel |
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