Wiring Diagrams
Electrical wiring diagrams are included in most aircraft service manuals and specify information, such as the size of the wire and type of terminals to be used for a particular application. Furthermore, wiring diagrams typically identify each component within a system by its part number and its serial number, including any changes that were made during the production run of an aircraft. Wiring diagrams are often used for troubleshooting electrical malfunctions.Block Diagrams
A block diagram is used as an aid for troubleshooting complex electrical and electronic systems. A block diagram consists of individual blocks that represent several components, such as a printed circuit board or some other type of replaceable module. |
| Figure 1. Block diagram of an aircraft electrical system |
A block diagram provides a quick, high-level view of a system to rapidly identify points of interest or trouble spots. Because of its high-level perspective, it may not offer the level of detail required for more comprehensive planning or implementation. A block diagram will not show every wire and switch in detail, that's the job of a circuit diagram. Figure 1 is a block diagram of an aircraft electrical system.
Pictorial Diagrams
In a pictorial diagram, pictures of components are used instead of the conventional electrical symbols found in schematic diagrams. A pictorial diagram helps the maintenance technician visualize the operation of a system. The pictorial diagram is a picture or sketch of the components of a specific system and the wiring between these components. This simplified diagram identifies components, even if you are not familiar with their appearance. This type of diagram does not show physical locations of components or the manner in which the wiring is marked or routed. [Figure 2] |
| Figure 2. Pictorial diagram of an aircraft electrical system |
Schematic Diagrams
A schematic diagram is used to illustrate a principle of operation, and therefore does not show parts as they actually appear or function. [Figure 3] However, schematic diagrams do indicate the location of components with respect to each other. Schematic diagrams are best utilized for troubleshooting. |
| Figure 3. Schematic diagram |
Aircraft Wire Types
The satisfactory performance of any modern aircraft depends to a very great degree on the continuing reliability of electrical systems and subsystems. Improperly or carelessly maintained wiring can be a source of both immediate and potential danger. The continued proper performance of electrical systems depends on the knowledge and techniques of the technician who installs, inspects, and maintains the electrical system wires and cables.Procedures and practices outlined in this section are general recommendations and are not intended to replace the manufacturer’s instructions and approved practices.
A wire is described as a single, solid conductor, or as a stranded conductor covered with an insulating material. Figure 4 illustrates these two definitions of a wire. Because of in-flight vibration and flexing, conductor round wire should be stranded to minimize fatigue breakage.
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| Figure 4. Aircraft electrical cable |
The term “cable,” as used in aircraft electrical installations, includes:
The term “wire harness” is used when an array of insulated conductors are bound together by lacing cord, metal bands, or other binding in an arrangement suitable for use only in specific equipment for which the harness was designed; it may include terminations. Wire harnesses are extensively used in aircraft to connect all the electrical components. [Figure 5]
- Two or more separately insulated conductors in the same jacket.
- Two or more separately insulated conductors twisted together (twisted pair).
- One or more insulated conductors covered with a metallic braided shield (shielded cable).
- A single insulated center conductor with a metallic braided outer conductor (radio frequency cable).
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| Figure 5. Shielded wire harness |
For many years, the standard wire in light aircraft has been MIL-W-5086A, which uses a tin-coated copper conductor rated at 600 volts and temperatures of 105 °C. This basic wire is then coated with various insulating coatings. Commercial and military aircraft use wire that is manufactured under MIL-W-22759 specification, which complies with current military and FAA requirements.
The most important consideration in the selection of aircraft wire is properly matching the wire’s construction to the application environment. Wire construction that is suitable for the most severe environmental condition to be encountered should be selected. Wires are typically categorized as being suitable for either open wiring or protected wiring application. The wire temperature rating is typically a measure of the insulation’s ability to withstand the combination of ambient temperature and current-related conductor temperature rise.
The most important consideration in the selection of aircraft wire is properly matching the wire’s construction to the application environment. Wire construction that is suitable for the most severe environmental condition to be encountered should be selected. Wires are typically categorized as being suitable for either open wiring or protected wiring application. The wire temperature rating is typically a measure of the insulation’s ability to withstand the combination of ambient temperature and current-related conductor temperature rise.
Conductor
The two most generally used conductors are copper and aluminum. Each has characteristics that make its use advantageous under certain circumstances. Also, each has certain disadvantages. Copper has a higher conductivity; is more ductile; has relatively high tensile strength; and can be easily soldered. Copper is more expensive and heavier than aluminum. Although aluminum has only about 60 percent of the conductivity of copper, it is used extensively. Its lightness makes possible long spans, and its relatively large diameter for a given conductivity reduces corona (the discharge of electricity from the wire when it has a high potential). The discharge is greater when small diameter wire is used than when large diameter wire is used. Some bus bars are made of aluminum instead of copper where there is a greater radiating surface for the same conductance. The characteristics of copper and aluminum are compared in Figure 6. |
| Figure 6. Aircraft electrical cable |
Plating
Bare copper develops a surface oxide coating at a rate dependent on temperature. This oxide film is a poor conductor of electricity and inhibits determination of wire. Therefore, all aircraft wiring has a coating of tin, silver, or nickel that has far slower oxidation rates.- Tin-coated copper is a very common plating material. Its ability to be successfully soldered without highly active fluxes diminishes rapidly with time after manufacture. It can be used up to the limiting temperature of 150 °C.
- Silver-coated wire is used where temperatures do not exceed 200 °C (392 °F).
- Nickel-coated wire retains its properties beyond 260 °C, but most aircraft wire using such coated strands has insulation systems that cannot exceed that temperature on long-term exposure. Soldered terminations of nickel-plated conductor require the use of different solder sleeves or flux than those used with tin- or silver-plated conductor.
Insulation
Two fundamental properties of insulation materials are insulation resistance and dielectric strength. These are entirely different and distinct properties.Insulation resistance is the resistance to current leakage through and over the surface of insulation materials. Insulation resistance can be measured with a megohmmeter/insulation tester without damaging the insulation, and data so obtained serves as a useful guide in determining the general condition of the insulation. However, the data obtained in this manner may not give a true picture of the condition of the insulation. Clean, dry insulation having cracks or other faults might show a high value of insulation resistance but would not be suitable for use.
Dielectric strength is the ability of the insulator to withstand potential difference and is usually expressed in terms of the voltage at which the insulation fails because of the electrostatic stress. Maximum dielectric strength values can be measured by raising the voltage of a test sample until the insulation breaks down.
The type of conductor insulation material varies with the type of installation. Characteristics should be chosen based on environment, such as abrasion resistance, arc resistance, corrosion resistance, cut-through strength, dielectric strength, flame resistant, mechanical strength, smoke emission, fluid resistance, and heat distortion. Such types of insulation materials (e.g., PVC/nylon, Kapton®, and Teflon®) are no longer used for new aircraft designs, but might still be installed on older aircraft. Insulation materials for new aircraft designs are made of Tefzel®, Teflon®/Kapton®/Teflon® and PTFE/Polyimide/PTFE. The development of better and safer insulation materials is ongoing.
Since electrical wire may be installed in areas where inspection is infrequent over extended periods of time, it is necessary to give special consideration to heat-aging characteristics in the selection of wire. Resistance to heat is of primary importance in the selection of wire for aircraft use, as it is the basic factor in wire rating. Where wire may be required to operate at higher temperatures due either to high ambient temperatures, high current loading, or a combination of the two, selection should be made on the basis of satisfactory performance under the most severe operating conditions.
Wire Shielding
With the increase in number of highly sensitive electronic devices found on modern aircraft, it has become very important to ensure proper shielding for many electric circuits. Shielding is the process of applying a metallic covering to wiring and equipment to eliminate electromagnetic interference (EMI). EMI is caused when electromagnetic fields (radio waves) induce high frequency (HF) voltages in a wire or component. The induced voltage can cause system inaccuracies or even failure.Use of shielding with 85 percent coverage or greater is recommended. Coaxial, triaxial, twinaxial, or quadraxial cables should be used, wherever appropriate, with their shields connected to ground at a single point or multiple points, depending upon the purpose of the shielding. [Figure 7] The airframe grounded structure may also be used as an EMI shield.
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| Figure 7. Shielded wire harness for flight control |
Wire Substitutions
When a replacement wire is required in the repair and modification of existing aircraft, the maintenance manual for that aircraft must first be reviewed to determine if the original aircraft manufacturer (OAM) has approved any substitution. If not, then the manufacturer must be contacted for an acceptable replacement.Areas Designated as Severe Wind and Moisture Problem (SWAMP)
SWAMP areas differ from aircraft to aircraft but are usually wheel wells, near wing flaps, wing folds, pylons, and other exterior areas that may have a harsh environment. Wires in these areas have often an exterior jacket to protect them from the environment. Wires for these applications often have design features incorporated into their construction that may make the wire unique; therefore, an acceptable substitution may be difficult, if not impossible, to find. It is very important to use the wire type recommended in the aircraft manufacturer’s maintenance handbook. Insulation or jacketing varies according to the environment. [Figure 8] |
| Figure 8. Wire harness with protective jacket |