Many different metals are required in the repair of aircraft. This is a result of the varying needs with respect to strength, weight, durability, and resistance to deterioration of specific structures or parts. In addition, the particular shape or form of the material plays an important role. In selecting materials for aircraft repair, these factors (plus many others) are considered in relation to the mechanical and physical properties. Among the common materials used are ferrous metals. The term “ferrous” applies to the group of metals having iron as their principal constituent.
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Iron
If carbon is added to iron in percentages ranging up to approximately 1 percent, the product is vastly superior to iron alone and is classified as carbon steel. Carbon steel forms the base of those alloy steels produced by combining carbon steel with other elements known to improve the properties of steel. A base metal (such as iron) to which small quantities of other metals have been added is called an alloy. The addition of other metals changes or improves the chemical or physical properties of the base metal for a particular use.
Steel and Steel Alloys
To facilitate the discussion of steels some familiarity with their nomenclature is desirable. A numerical index, sponsored by the Society of Automotive Engineers (SAE) and the American Iron and Steel Institute (AISI), is used to identify the chemical compositions of the structural steels. In this system, a four-numeral series is used to designate the plain carbon and alloy steels; five numerals are used to designate certain types of alloy steels. The first two digits indicate the type of steel, the second digit also generally (but not always) gives the approximate amount of the major alloying element, and the last two (or three) digits are intended to indicate the approximate middle of the carbon range. However, a deviation from the rule of indicating the carbon range is sometimes necessary.
Small quantities of certain elements are present in alloy steels that are not specified as required. These elements are considered as incidental and may be present to the maximum amounts as follows: copper, 0.35 percent; nickel, 0.25 percent; chromium, 0.20 percent; molybdenum, 0.06 percent. The list of standard steels is altered from time to time to accommodate steels of proven merit and to provide for changes in the metallurgical and engineering requirements of industry. [Figure]
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| SAE numerical index |
Metal stock is manufactured in several forms and shapes, including sheets, bars, rods, tubing, extrusions, forgings, and castings. Sheet metal is made in a number of sizes and thicknesses. Specifications designate thicknesses in thousandths of an inch. Bars and rods are supplied in a variety of shapes, such as round, square, rectangular, hexagonal, and octagonal. Tubing can be obtained in round, oval, rectangular, or streamlined shapes. The size of tubing is generally specified by outside diameter and wall thickness.
The sheet metal is usually formed cold in machines, such as presses, bending brakes, draw benches, or rolls. Forgings are shaped or formed by pressing or hammering heated metal in dies. Pouring molten metal into molds produces castings. Machining finishes the casting.
Spark testing is a common means of identifying various ferrous metals. In this test, the piece of iron or steel is held against a revolving grinding stone, and the metal is identified by the sparks thrown off. Each ferrous metal has its own peculiar spark characteristics. The spark streams vary from a few tiny shafts to a shower of sparks several feet in length. (Few nonferrous metals give off sparks when touched to a grinding stone. Therefore, these metals cannot be successfully identified by the spark test.)
Identification by spark testing is often inexact unless performed by an experienced person or the test pieces differ greatly in their carbon content and alloying constituents.
Wrought iron produces long shafts that are straw colored as they leave the stone and white at the end. Cast iron sparks are red as they leave the stone and turn to a straw color. Low carbon steels give off long, straight shafts having a few white sprigs. As the carbon content of the steel increases, the number of sprigs along each shaft increases and the stream becomes whiter in color. Nickel steel causes the spark stream to contain small white blocks of light within the main burst.
Types, Characteristics, and Uses of Alloyed Steels
Steel containing carbon in percentages ranging from 0.10 to 0.30 percent is classed as low carbon steel. The equivalent SAE numbers range from 1010 to 1030. Steels of this grade are used for making items, such as safety wire, certain nuts, cable bushings, or threaded rod ends. This steel in sheet form is used for secondary structural parts and clamps and in tubular form for moderately stressed structural parts.
Steel containing carbon in percentages ranging from 0.30 to 0.50 percent is classed as medium carbon steel. This steel is especially adaptable for machining or forging and where surface hardness is desirable. Certain rod ends and light forgings are made from SAE 1035 steel.
Steel containing carbon in percentages ranging from 0.50 to 1.05 percent is classed as high carbon steel. The addition of other elements in varying quantities adds to the hardness of this steel. In the fully heat-treated condition, it is very hard, withstands high shear and wear, and has little deformation. It has limited use in aircraft. SAE 1095 in sheet form is used for making flat springs and in wire form for making coil springs.
The various nickel steels are produced by combining nickel with carbon steel. Steels containing from 3 to 3.75 percent nickels are commonly used. Nickel increases the hardness, tensile strength, and elastic limit of steel without appreciably decreasing the ductility. It also intensifies the hardening effect of heat treatment. SAE 2330 steel is used extensively for aircraft parts, such as bolts, terminals, keys, clevises, and pins.
Chromium steel is high in hardness, strength, and corrosion-resistant properties and is particularly adaptable for heat-treated forgings, which require greater toughness and strength than may be obtained in plain carbon steel. It can be used for articles such as the balls and rollers of antifriction bearings. Chrome-nickel or stainless steels are the corrosion resistant metals. The anticorrosive degree of this steel is determined by the surface condition of the metal, as well as by the composition, temperature, and concentration of the corrosive agent. The principal alloy of stainless steel is chromium. The corrosion resistant steel most often used in aircraft construction is known as 18-8 steel because its content is 18 percent chromium and 8 percent nickel. One of the distinctive features of 18-8 steel is that cold working may increase its strength.
Stainless steel may be rolled, drawn, bent, or formed to any shape. Because these steels expand about 50 percent more than mild steel and conduct heat only about 40 percent as rapidly, they are more difficult to weld. Stainless steel can be used for almost any part of an aircraft. Some of its common applications are the fabrication of exhaust collectors, stacks and manifolds, structural and machined parts, springs, castings, tie rods, and control cables.
The chrome-vanadium steels are made of approximately 18 percent vanadium and about 1 percent chromium. When heat-treated, they have strength, toughness, and resistance to wear and fatigue. A special grade of this steel in sheet form can be cold formed into intricate shapes. It can be folded and flattened without signs of breaking or failure. SAE 6150 is used for making springs; chrome-vanadium with high carbon content, SAE 6195, is used for ball and roller bearings.
Molybdenum in small percentages is used in combination with chromium to form chrome-molybdenum steel, which has various uses in aircraft. Molybdenum is a strong alloying element. It raises the ultimate strength of steel without affecting ductility or workability. Molybdenum steels are tough and wear resistant, and they harden throughout when heat-treated. They are especially adaptable for welding and, for this reason, are used principally for welded structural parts and assemblies. This type steel has practically replaced carbon steel in the fabrication of fuselage tubing, engine mounts, landing gears, and other structural parts. For example, a heat-treated SAE X4130 tube is approximately four times as strong as an SAE 1025 tube of the same weight and size.
A series of chrome-molybdenum steel most used in aircraft construction is that series containing 0.25 to 0.55 percent carbon, 0.15 to 0.25 percent molybdenum, and 0.50 to 1.10 percent chromium. These steels, when suitably heat treated, are deep hardening, easily machined, readily welded by either gas or electric methods, and are especially adapted to high temperature service.
Inconel is a nickel-chromium-iron alloy closely resembling stainless steel (corrosion resistant steel (CRES)) in appearance. Aircraft exhaust systems use both alloys interchangeably. Because the two alloys look very much alike, a distinguishing test is often necessary. One method of identification is to use an electrochemical technique, as described in the following paragraph, to identify the nickel (Ni) content of the alloy. Inconel has nickel content greater than 50 percent, and the electrochemical test detects nickel.
The tensile strength of Inconel is 100,000 pounds per square inch (psi) annealed, and 125,000 psi when hard rolled. It is highly resistant to salt water and can withstand temperatures as high as 1,600 °F.Inconel welds readily and has working qualities like those of corrosion resistant steels.